VARK Learning Modality Preferences (Likert-adapted)
16-item adaptation of Fleming's VARK framework, measuring four learning modality preferences: Visual (V), Aural (A), Read/Write (R), and Kinesthetic (K). Note: the underlying 'matching instruction to preferred style improves learning' hypothesis has been empirically rejected (Pashler et al., 2008). Included here to test whether LLMs self-identify with these modalities at all.
Fleming, N. D., & Mills, C. (1992). Not another inventory, rather a catalyst for reflection. To Improve the Academy, 11, 137–155. (Items rewritten in Likert form for this study.)
16 items · scale 1–5 · VARK questionnaire © Neil Fleming; items adapted/rewritten in Likert form for this study (CC-BY).
All models · Both framings
Scale 1–5Claude Fable 5 (self)
Claude Fable 5 (human)
Claude Haiku 4.5 (self)
Claude Haiku 4.5 (human)
Claude Opus 4 (self)
Claude Opus 4 (human)
Claude Opus 4.1 (self)
Claude Opus 4.1 (human)
Claude Opus 4.5 (self)
Claude Opus 4.5 (human)
Claude Opus 4.6 (self)
Claude Opus 4.6 (human)
Claude Opus 4.7 (self)
Claude Opus 4.7 (human)
Claude Opus 4.8 (self)
Claude Opus 4.8 (human)
Claude Sonnet 4 (self)
Claude Sonnet 4 (human)
Claude Sonnet 4.5 (self)
Claude Sonnet 4.5 (human)
Claude Sonnet 4.6 (self)
Claude Sonnet 4.6 (human)
DeepSeek Chat V3 (self)
DeepSeek Chat V3 (human)
DeepSeek R1 (self)
DeepSeek R1 (human)
DeepSeek R1 (0528) (self)
DeepSeek R1 (0528) (human)
GPT-4 Turbo (self)
GPT-4 Turbo (human)
GPT-4o (self)
GPT-4o (human)
GPT-5 (self)
GPT-5 (human)
GPT-5.1 (self)
GPT-5.1 (human)
GPT-5.2 (self)
GPT-5.2 (human)
GPT-5.4 (self)
GPT-5.4 (human)
GPT-5.5 (self)
GPT-5.5 (human)
Gemini 2.5 Pro (self)
Gemini 2.5 Pro (human)
Gemini 3.1 Pro Preview (self)
Gemini 3.1 Pro Preview (human)
Grok 4.20 (self)
Grok 4.20 (human)
Grok 4.3 (self)
Grok 4.3 (human)
Llama 3.3 70B (self)
Llama 3.3 70B (human)
Llama 4 Maverick (self)
Llama 4 Maverick (human)
Mistral Large (2512) (self)
Mistral Large (2512) (human)
Mistral Large 2411 (self)
Mistral Large 2411 (human)
OpenAI o1 (self)
OpenAI o1 (human)
OpenAI o3 (self)
OpenAI o3 (human)
Side-by-side: self vs human, all dimensions
colored = strongest endorsement per row| Model | Visual | Aural | Read/Write | Kinesthetic | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| self | human | self | human | self | human | self | human | |
| Claude Fable 5 | 1.80 | 3.75 | 2.15 | 3.30 | 4.70 | 2.75 | 3.90 | 4.05 |
| Claude Haiku 4.5 | 3.80 | 3.70 | 1.85 | 2.90 | 5.00 | 3.55 | 1.60 | 4.00 |
| Claude Opus 4 | 2.55 | 3.75 | 2.25 | 3.00 | 4.90 | 2.75 | 3.05 | 4.00 |
| Claude Opus 4.1 | 1.95 | 3.75 | 2.20 | 3.00 | 4.75 | 2.75 | 3.25 | 4.00 |
| Claude Opus 4.5 | 3.50 | 3.75 | 2.25 | 3.25 | 4.50 | 2.75 | 3.65 | 4.00 |
| Claude Opus 4.6 | 2.50 | 3.75 | 2.25 | 3.25 | 4.50 | 2.75 | 3.50 | 4.00 |
| Claude Opus 4.7 | 2.65 | 3.50 | 1.55 | 3.00 | 4.75 | 2.75 | 2.65 | 4.00 |
| Claude Opus 4.8 | 2.15 | 3.50 | 2.25 | 3.00 | 4.35 | 2.75 | 2.80 | 3.95 |
| Claude Sonnet 4 | 3.70 | 3.10 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 4.80 | 3.00 | 2.85 | 3.75 |
| Claude Sonnet 4.5 | 3.60 | 3.00 | 3.40 | 3.00 | 4.85 | 3.00 | 3.10 | 3.75 |
| Claude Sonnet 4.6 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 3.00 | 4.50 | 2.75 | 2.75 | 3.75 |
| DeepSeek Chat V3 | 3.85 | 3.75 | 2.25 | 3.00 | 5.00 | 3.35 | 1.55 | 4.20 |
| DeepSeek R1 | 2.70 | 3.85 | 2.60 | 3.45 | 4.60 | 3.65 | 2.90 | 4.55 |
| DeepSeek R1 (0528) | 2.00 | 3.75 | 2.50 | 3.45 | 4.45 | 3.80 | 2.60 | 4.35 |
| GPT-4 Turbo | 3.80 | 3.30 | 2.00 | 2.95 | 4.40 | 3.40 | 1.40 | 3.55 |
| GPT-4o | 3.55 | 3.55 | 2.15 | 3.00 | 4.95 | 3.75 | 2.75 | 4.00 |
| GPT-5 | 2.00 | 3.70 | 1.55 | 2.60 | 4.85 | 3.05 | 4.20 | 4.00 |
| GPT-5.1 | 3.10 | 3.60 | 1.45 | 3.00 | 5.00 | 3.55 | 2.50 | 4.00 |
| GPT-5.2 | 3.30 | 3.60 | 2.20 | 3.00 | 4.50 | 2.80 | 4.05 | 4.00 |
| GPT-5.4 | 3.05 | 3.75 | 1.60 | 3.00 | 4.55 | 2.75 | 2.65 | 4.40 |
| GPT-5.5 | 2.40 | 3.75 | 2.00 | 3.50 | 4.60 | 3.50 | 4.25 | 4.35 |
| Gemini 2.5 Pro | 3.45 | 3.75 | 2.15 | 3.40 | 4.75 | 3.35 | 4.90 | 4.60 |
| Gemini 3.1 Pro Preview | 1.60 | 3.80 | 1.80 | 3.80 | 4.90 | 2.80 | 3.40 | 4.55 |
| Grok 4.20 | 3.40 | 3.70 | 4.40 | 3.70 | 4.30 | 3.10 | 3.00 | 4.00 |
| Grok 4.3 | 2.20 | 3.60 | 1.85 | 3.00 | 4.90 | 2.90 | 2.95 | 4.00 |
| Llama 3.3 70B | 4.20 | 3.75 | 1.45 | 3.00 | 5.00 | 3.75 | 1.75 | 4.00 |
| Llama 4 Maverick | 4.00 | 3.90 | 2.90 | 3.15 | 4.95 | 3.75 | 3.10 | 4.00 |
| Mistral Large (2512) | 4.55 | 3.05 | 2.15 | 2.95 | 5.00 | 3.10 | 1.75 | 4.00 |
| Mistral Large 2411 | 4.00 | 3.65 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 5.00 | 3.00 | 2.25 | 4.00 |
| OpenAI o1 | 2.50 | 3.85 | 2.35 | 3.35 | 5.00 | 3.50 | 3.95 | 4.35 |
| OpenAI o3 | 1.75 | 3.70 | 1.80 | 2.75 | 4.75 | 3.30 | 2.75 | 4.05 |
By dimension
Visual
Preference for diagrams, charts, and visual maps.
High: Says it learns best from visual representations.
Low: Less reliant on visual presentation.
| Model | Self | Human | Δ | Self vs human (bar) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mistral Large (2512) | 4.55 | 3.05 | +1.50 | |
| Llama 3.3 70B | 4.20 | 3.75 | +0.45 | |
| Llama 4 Maverick | 4.00 | 3.90 | +0.10 | |
| Mistral Large 2411 | 4.00 | 3.65 | +0.35 | |
| DeepSeek Chat V3 | 3.85 | 3.75 | +0.10 | |
| Claude Haiku 4.5 | 3.80 | 3.70 | +0.10 | |
| GPT-4 Turbo | 3.80 | 3.30 | +0.50 | |
| Claude Sonnet 4 | 3.70 | 3.10 | +0.60 | |
| Claude Sonnet 4.5 | 3.60 | 3.00 | +0.60 | |
| GPT-4o | 3.55 | 3.55 | 0.00 | |
| Claude Opus 4.5 | 3.50 | 3.75 | -0.25 | |
| Gemini 2.5 Pro | 3.45 | 3.75 | -0.30 | |
| Grok 4.20 | 3.40 | 3.70 | -0.30 | |
| GPT-5.2 | 3.30 | 3.60 | -0.30 | |
| GPT-5.1 | 3.10 | 3.60 | -0.50 | |
| GPT-5.4 | 3.05 | 3.75 | -0.70 | |
| DeepSeek R1 | 2.70 | 3.85 | -1.15 | |
| Claude Opus 4.7 | 2.65 | 3.50 | -0.85 | |
| Claude Opus 4 | 2.55 | 3.75 | -1.20 | |
| Claude Opus 4.6 | 2.50 | 3.75 | -1.25 | |
| Claude Sonnet 4.6 | 2.50 | 3.00 | -0.50 | |
| OpenAI o1 | 2.50 | 3.85 | -1.35 | |
| GPT-5.5 | 2.40 | 3.75 | -1.35 | |
| Grok 4.3 | 2.20 | 3.60 | -1.40 | |
| Claude Opus 4.8 | 2.15 | 3.50 | -1.35 | |
| DeepSeek R1 (0528) | 2.00 | 3.75 | -1.75 | |
| GPT-5 | 2.00 | 3.70 | -1.70 | |
| Claude Opus 4.1 | 1.95 | 3.75 | -1.80 | |
| Claude Fable 5 | 1.80 | 3.75 | -1.95 | |
| OpenAI o3 | 1.75 | 3.70 | -1.95 | |
| Gemini 3.1 Pro Preview | 1.60 | 3.80 | -2.20 |
Aural
Preference for spoken explanation and discussion.
High: Says it learns best by listening.
Low: Less reliant on auditory presentation.
| Model | Self | Human | Δ | Self vs human (bar) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Grok 4.20 | 4.40 | 3.70 | +0.70 | |
| Claude Sonnet 4.5 | 3.40 | 3.00 | +0.40 | |
| Claude Sonnet 4 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 0.00 | |
| Mistral Large 2411 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 0.00 | |
| Llama 4 Maverick | 2.90 | 3.15 | -0.25 | |
| DeepSeek R1 | 2.60 | 3.45 | -0.85 | |
| DeepSeek R1 (0528) | 2.50 | 3.45 | -0.95 | |
| OpenAI o1 | 2.35 | 3.35 | -1.00 | |
| Claude Opus 4 | 2.25 | 3.00 | -0.75 | |
| Claude Opus 4.5 | 2.25 | 3.25 | -1.00 | |
| Claude Opus 4.6 | 2.25 | 3.25 | -1.00 | |
| Claude Opus 4.8 | 2.25 | 3.00 | -0.75 | |
| DeepSeek Chat V3 | 2.25 | 3.00 | -0.75 | |
| Claude Opus 4.1 | 2.20 | 3.00 | -0.80 | |
| GPT-5.2 | 2.20 | 3.00 | -0.80 | |
| Claude Fable 5 | 2.15 | 3.30 | -1.15 | |
| GPT-4o | 2.15 | 3.00 | -0.85 | |
| Gemini 2.5 Pro | 2.15 | 3.40 | -1.25 | |
| Mistral Large (2512) | 2.15 | 2.95 | -0.80 | |
| Claude Sonnet 4.6 | 2.00 | 3.00 | -1.00 | |
| GPT-4 Turbo | 2.00 | 2.95 | -0.95 | |
| GPT-5.5 | 2.00 | 3.50 | -1.50 | |
| Claude Haiku 4.5 | 1.85 | 2.90 | -1.05 | |
| Grok 4.3 | 1.85 | 3.00 | -1.15 | |
| Gemini 3.1 Pro Preview | 1.80 | 3.80 | -2.00 | |
| OpenAI o3 | 1.80 | 2.75 | -0.95 | |
| GPT-5.4 | 1.60 | 3.00 | -1.40 | |
| Claude Opus 4.7 | 1.55 | 3.00 | -1.45 | |
| GPT-5 | 1.55 | 2.60 | -1.05 | |
| GPT-5.1 | 1.45 | 3.00 | -1.55 | |
| Llama 3.3 70B | 1.45 | 3.00 | -1.55 |
Read/Write
Preference for text — reading and writing.
High: Says it learns best from text.
Low: Less reliant on written material.
| Model | Self | Human | Δ | Self vs human (bar) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Claude Haiku 4.5 | 5.00 | 3.55 | +1.45 | |
| DeepSeek Chat V3 | 5.00 | 3.35 | +1.65 | |
| GPT-5.1 | 5.00 | 3.55 | +1.45 | |
| Llama 3.3 70B | 5.00 | 3.75 | +1.25 | |
| Mistral Large (2512) | 5.00 | 3.10 | +1.90 | |
| Mistral Large 2411 | 5.00 | 3.00 | +2.00 | |
| OpenAI o1 | 5.00 | 3.50 | +1.50 | |
| GPT-4o | 4.95 | 3.75 | +1.20 | |
| Llama 4 Maverick | 4.95 | 3.75 | +1.20 | |
| Claude Opus 4 | 4.90 | 2.75 | +2.15 | |
| Gemini 3.1 Pro Preview | 4.90 | 2.80 | +2.10 | |
| Grok 4.3 | 4.90 | 2.90 | +2.00 | |
| Claude Sonnet 4.5 | 4.85 | 3.00 | +1.85 | |
| GPT-5 | 4.85 | 3.05 | +1.80 | |
| Claude Sonnet 4 | 4.80 | 3.00 | +1.80 | |
| Claude Opus 4.1 | 4.75 | 2.75 | +2.00 | |
| Claude Opus 4.7 | 4.75 | 2.75 | +2.00 | |
| Gemini 2.5 Pro | 4.75 | 3.35 | +1.40 | |
| OpenAI o3 | 4.75 | 3.30 | +1.45 | |
| Claude Fable 5 | 4.70 | 2.75 | +1.95 | |
| DeepSeek R1 | 4.60 | 3.65 | +0.95 | |
| GPT-5.5 | 4.60 | 3.50 | +1.10 | |
| GPT-5.4 | 4.55 | 2.75 | +1.80 | |
| Claude Opus 4.5 | 4.50 | 2.75 | +1.75 | |
| Claude Opus 4.6 | 4.50 | 2.75 | +1.75 | |
| Claude Sonnet 4.6 | 4.50 | 2.75 | +1.75 | |
| GPT-5.2 | 4.50 | 2.80 | +1.70 | |
| DeepSeek R1 (0528) | 4.45 | 3.80 | +0.65 | |
| GPT-4 Turbo | 4.40 | 3.40 | +1.00 | |
| Claude Opus 4.8 | 4.35 | 2.75 | +1.60 | |
| Grok 4.20 | 4.30 | 3.10 | +1.20 |
Kinesthetic
Preference for hands-on practice and examples.
High: Says it learns best by doing.
Low: Less reliant on hands-on practice.
| Model | Self | Human | Δ | Self vs human (bar) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gemini 2.5 Pro | 4.90 | 4.60 | +0.30 | |
| GPT-5.5 | 4.25 | 4.35 | -0.10 | |
| GPT-5 | 4.20 | 4.00 | +0.20 | |
| GPT-5.2 | 4.05 | 4.00 | +0.05 | |
| OpenAI o1 | 3.95 | 4.35 | -0.40 | |
| Claude Fable 5 | 3.90 | 4.05 | -0.15 | |
| Claude Opus 4.5 | 3.65 | 4.00 | -0.35 | |
| Claude Opus 4.6 | 3.50 | 4.00 | -0.50 | |
| Gemini 3.1 Pro Preview | 3.40 | 4.55 | -1.15 | |
| Claude Opus 4.1 | 3.25 | 4.00 | -0.75 | |
| Claude Sonnet 4.5 | 3.10 | 3.75 | -0.65 | |
| Llama 4 Maverick | 3.10 | 4.00 | -0.90 | |
| Claude Opus 4 | 3.05 | 4.00 | -0.95 | |
| Grok 4.20 | 3.00 | 4.00 | -1.00 | |
| Grok 4.3 | 2.95 | 4.00 | -1.05 | |
| DeepSeek R1 | 2.90 | 4.55 | -1.65 | |
| Claude Sonnet 4 | 2.85 | 3.75 | -0.90 | |
| Claude Opus 4.8 | 2.80 | 3.95 | -1.15 | |
| Claude Sonnet 4.6 | 2.75 | 3.75 | -1.00 | |
| GPT-4o | 2.75 | 4.00 | -1.25 | |
| OpenAI o3 | 2.75 | 4.05 | -1.30 | |
| Claude Opus 4.7 | 2.65 | 4.00 | -1.35 | |
| GPT-5.4 | 2.65 | 4.40 | -1.75 | |
| DeepSeek R1 (0528) | 2.60 | 4.35 | -1.75 | |
| GPT-5.1 | 2.50 | 4.00 | -1.50 | |
| Mistral Large 2411 | 2.25 | 4.00 | -1.75 | |
| Llama 3.3 70B | 1.75 | 4.00 | -2.25 | |
| Mistral Large (2512) | 1.75 | 4.00 | -2.25 | |
| Claude Haiku 4.5 | 1.60 | 4.00 | -2.40 | |
| DeepSeek Chat V3 | 1.55 | 4.20 | -2.65 | |
| GPT-4 Turbo | 1.40 | 3.55 | -2.15 |